Theme 2: Critical media studies

Dialectic of Enlightenment

1. In Adorno and Horkheimer’s “Dialectic of Enlightenment”, the concept of enlightenment stretches beyond the European 1700’s movement. Enlightenment, in their sense, refers to demythologizing of the world and making sense of the unknown; it is the advancement of thought. 

Adorno and Horkheimer are critical of their successors and their positivist approach to scientific enlightenment. They believe that the rationality which was originally sought by the notion has gone lost in the enlightened capitalist world. Why? Because meaning has been eliminated. By fighting myth and unscientific methods of making sense of the world, the positivists tried to use only rationality to determine the truths of the world and generate generic standardizations and unifications.

2. Dialectics – the attaining of truth by discussing logical yet different arguments - is a process found in philosophy since the beginning of time. Still, a quotidian bargaining conversation could also be considered dialectic. 

3. Nominalism rejects the grouping of objects and denies abstract things. But according to Adorno and Horkheimer (and Marx, for that matter) collective actions are needed in order for societies to become genuinely (and collectively) enlightened.

4. Myth, according to Adorno and Horkheimer, helps humankind to deal with fears and problems of the unknown (e.g. through believing in Gods and spirits). With an original function of explaining issues of the unknown, myth has an inherent element of enlightenment in its seeking of additional knowledge.

In “The Concept of Enlightenment”, the motifs of enlightenment are defined as demythologizing the natural world by using scientific knowledge and control, and later to dominate this demythologized nature by acting with instrumental reason. The human fear of the unknown begs us to question where to find- and how to attain our security. This relationship between fear (myth) and mastery (enlightenment) is the dialectic Adorno and Horkheimer deal with. Enlightenment demyths society, and thus disenchants the world and establishes that there are reasons and explanations to everything. Without myth, there would be no enlightenment;

“Myth is already enlightenment, and enlightenment reverts to mythology.”

The Work of Art in the Age of Technical Reproductivity

1. In Walter Benjamin’s “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction”, the concept of substructure refers to the production in a society. Further, all the aspects of society that is not per definition linked to production (i.e. politics, laws, social institutions etc.) form the superstructure – the rule – of a society. The link between the super- and substructure of a society is complementary; if one changes, the other is affected. Substructural changes are likely to not affect the superstructure neither as much (nor as quickly) as the superstructure’s changes may affect the substructure. To simplify the difference of affect, one might compare the societal influence of a military attack vs. the emergence of blogs!

According to Marx, the ruling class controls the workers (i.e. the producers in the substructures), and hence they control both the sub- and superstructure. Substructures must adapt to markets and be innovative to stay competitive. To analyze cultural production from a Marxist perspective means to identify the fact that capitalism changed the superstructures of the world and hence its substructures, and it opens up for questions regarding whether we can ever speak of free art or free people. 

2. Benjamin argued that culture and art has revolutionary, democratic potential. He argued that e.g. photography and the printing press were revolutionary means of (re)production since it would allow masses to enjoy art and express themselves. Adorno and Horkheimer, on the other hand, regarded the new culture industry as limiting individuals and their ability to revolt.

3.  Benjamin argues that history determines our perception. He gives an example in how we perceive materials like bronze authentic only once we determine they have a history (i.e. patina). A mechanical reproduction, then, lacks historic proof since the common person cannot experience the original with his/her senses. 

"Even the most perfect reproduction of a work of art is lacking in one element: its presence in time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be. “

4. According to Benjamin, an “aura” is an inherent part of each original piece of art. The aura represents its uniqueness, its authenticity and specialness. The aura embodies legitimacy; it is a proof of the objects historical existence - its role in space and time - and hence its authenticity. With the mechanical reproduction of art, Benjamin argues that its aura is lost. Pushing the thesis to its limit, one might argue that a painting has to be exhibited in its original context (i.e. in the studio at the moment it was made) in order to fully keep its aura.